By: Sabrina Peña-Sy, a HISTOYOUTH Writer
Japan’s story of industrialization and militarization in the late 19th century and early 20th century has been one of remarkable accomplishments and reprehensible atrocities. This series attempts to chronologize the modernization of Japan, and its imperialism in the first half of the 20th century. All evidence is cited in the notes.
Before one can understand how Japan was opened, one must understand why Japan was closed. We begin with Japanese isolationism.
Post-Warring-States Japan
Japanese isolationism was spurred by growing concerns around European colonialism, built on an existing weariness towards foreign influence (Goss). In the late 16th century, Japan was emerging from a feudal period of warring states. Daimyo Hideyoshi Toyotomi was instrumental in both consolidating power in the nation and instigating the systematic eradication of non-Japanese influences (Pyle). He began restricting trade and religion in a shift towards self-imposed isolationism (Britannica).
Government policies sought to chase out European trade and disincentivize ideologies not originating in Japan. For example, a widespread campaign to persecute Christianity, led to an incident on February 5, 1597, where 26 Catholic men and boys were crucified and murdered in Nagasaki (Goss). This massacre was committed on a hill overlooking a port, suggesting the punishment may have also been a warning to the public.
Pre-Seclusionist Tokugawa
After Hideyoshi passed away in 1598, Tokugawa Ieyasu seized power and was recognized as shogun by the Emperor in 1603, beginning the Tokugawa Shogunate (1603 - 1867) (Pyle). Seclusionist policies and enforcement increased; in 1605, the shogunate banned the building of vessels larger than 500 koku, “in other words, it was prohibited to build ocean going vessels;” and by 1616, “European traders were restricted to the ports of Nagasaki and Hirado” (Vaporis).
From 1633 to 1639, Ieyasu’s grandson and second successor Tokugawa Iemitsu issued a series of edicts that severed trade ties between Japan and majoritively European states. These sakoku or “closed country” edicts prevented any Japanese citizen from leaving and anyone arriving from abroad, even those of Japanese origin, from entering the country. It also ordered for the ousting of Christian influences in particular through mandating investigations of “any place where the teachings of padres (Christianity) is practiced” and rewarding “any informer who reveals the whereabouts of the followers of padres” (Vaporis).
Note that the name “closed country” edict, while popular among some historians, may be misleading as Japan was not completely isolated from the rest of the world. The anti-foreign policies were often directed at Portuguese traders and followers of padres as the government sought to limit Christianity in particular. When the final edict was issued in 1639, and Japan finally became a seclusionist state, there was still trade with Dutch and Chinese merchants, albeit limited and highly controlled.
Seclusionist Tokugawa
The Tokugawa Shogunate, under seclustionist policies, is often regarded as a period rife with cultural development and evolution. This “is most closely associated with what is known as the Genroku Period,” from 1688 to 1703 (Pyle). However, there was simultaneous unrest growing from deteriorating living standards.
Due to the structure of political power, massive wealth disparities and a lack of financial responsibility among government officials ran rampant. The shogun ruled over and required the support of hundreds of daimyo, feudal lords with respective territories, who in turn relied heavily on taxing their peasants. As both the bakufu and the daimyo’s personal expenditures “tended more and more to exceed their income,” the livelihoods of the average citizen worsened (Pyle). A lack of consistent and focused central oversight created a breeding ground for corruption, and a “lack of bookkeeping” led to outdated taxing practices (Pyle).
Furthermore, inadequate management meant that samurai stipends were inconsistently fulfilled. Simultaneously, many commoners in countryside villages had growing influence and economic power, often living more prosperous than the samurai. Consequently, there was social and ideological unrest, as the once elite class of samurai were struggling to afford basic goods; “among all the causes of the anti-Tokugawa movement that led to the downfall of the bakufu, the most powerful was the ambition of young samurai” (Pyle).
Thus, as seclusionist Tokugawa Japan progressed, a restive citizenry discontent with the shogun set the foundation for the imperialist ideologies later on. To spark said nationalist anger were the “black ships” of Matthew C. Perry.
Works Cited
Goss, Rob. “The Wild West Outpost of Japan’s Isolationist Era.” Smithsonian Magazine, 13 May 2022, www.smithsonianmag.com/history/the-wild-west-outpost-of-japans-isolationist-era-180980070/.
Munez, Everett. “Sakoku.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 18 Apr. 2023, www.britannica.com/topic/sakoku.
Pyle, Kenneth B. The Making of Modern Japan. D.C. Health, 1978.
Takeomi, Nishikawa. “The Black Ships Shock: A Historic Encounter That Changed Japan.” Nippon.Com, 6 Feb. 2023, www.nippon.com/en/japan-topics/g02197/.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia Britannica. “Genroku Period.” Encyclopedia Britannica, 20 July 1998, www.britannica.com/event/Genroku-period.
Vaporis, Constantine Nomikos. Voices of Early Modern Japan: Contemporary Accounts of Daily Life during the Age of the Shoguns. 2012. Westview Press, 212AD, pp. 98–103, open.conted.ox.ac.uk/sites/open.conted.ox.ac.uk/files/resources/Create%20Document/Edicts%20regulating%20foreign%20relations%201635%20and%201639.pdf.
Comments